Bible (New Testament): English Standard Version

The epistle of James is written by a Christian leader of that name, who, according to tradition, is James the Just, a member of Jesus’s family (that is, his adelphos, variously identified by Christian denominations as a half-brother, step-brother, or cousin of Jesus). After Peter began traveling elsewhere, James had become the leader of the Jerusalem church, a post he retained until his martyrdom in the 60s CE. He was known for his forthright and practical form of Christianity, expressed in ascetic devotion, which earned him the appellation “the Just” (or “Righteous”). The epistle of James matches the traditional picture of its author because it is focused on the question of how Christian faith is expressed in practice. It addresses itself to “the twelve tribes in the Dispersion” (James 1:1), which is likely a reference to all Christians, using the language of the Old Testament to designate them as God’s covenantal family.

James begins by encouraging Christians to rejoice in their sufferings, trusting in God to give graciously what they need at the appropriate time. In accordance with the letter’s focus on practical faith, it urges them not only to listen to the teaching of the gospel but also to put it into action through their deeds, by serving the poor and caring for the outcasts. James also includes a section that at first glance appears to be a rebuttal of Paul’s doctrine of salvation by faith rather than by works, even to the point of engaging with the example of Abraham, as Paul himself did in Galatians: “You see that a person is justified by works and not by faith alone” (Jas 2:24). On closer inspection, however, it seems more likely that James is not pushing back directly against Paul, largely because Paul did not discount the necessary place of works in the expression of one’s Christian faith (Eph 2:10). James appears to be reining in a teaching that has apparently parroted Paul’s talking-points but has gone even further by promoting a purely spiritual faith that has nothing to do with living righteously. The remainder of the Book of James details those behaviors that exemplify Christian faith, such as controlling one’s speech, seeking wisdom and humility, avoiding the temptation of wealth, and exercising patience in difficult times.

First Peter is a letter from the disciple Peter that is addressed to Christian communities scattered across a wide area of Asia Minor (which suggests that Peter had likely undertaken missionary journeys in that area after his activities related in the Book of Acts). On the spectrum between Paul’s predilection for abstract theology and James’s for practicality, Peter falls somewhere in the middle. Peter’s main point is to remind his audience that their Christian faith has given them a new, all-encompassing identity, and that the way they live should demonstrate the truth of that identity. He calls his readers to pursue holiness and unity and avoid the sins that tear people apart from one another. He grounds this exhortation in a metaphor of Christian identity drawn from the Old Testament: he identifies Christians as “[…] living stones [that] are being built up as a spiritual house, to be a holy priesthood, to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ” (1 Pet 2:5).

Peter advises Christians to live as good citizens and neighbors, to submit to local authorities, and to exemplify an honorable way of life. Even so, he warns them, they will likely still face persecution, and they ought to be prepared: “Beloved, do not be surprised at the fiery trial when it comes upon you to test you, as though something strange were happening to you. But rejoice insofar as you share Christ’s sufferings […]” (1 Pet 4:12-13). Peter brings all his advice down to one principle, also reflected in Jesus’s teaching and the writings of Paul and John: the all-encompassing call to love: “Above all, keep loving one another earnestly, since love covers a multitude of sins” (1 Pet 4:8).

The epistle of 2 Peter is attributed to the disciple Peter and was either written late in his ministry or was compiled by another person from Peter’s wider circle after his death (2 Pet 1:13-15). If it is the work of Peter or his circle, it would date to the second half of the first century, but some critical scholars suspect that it is a pseudonymous work that could be as late as the second century. Second Peter harmonizes with the themes of 1 Peter, but it also includes topics that draw from the apocryphal writings (texts that are considered instructive but not part of the Hebrew Bible) of Second Temple Judaism, such as the Enochic literature. It appears to borrow some of its content from the epistle of Jude.

Second Peter, like its predecessor, encourages Christians to understand their identity in Christ and to live in accordance with that identity: “Therefore, brothers, be all the more diligent to confirm your calling and election, for if you practice these qualities you will never fall” (2 Pet 1:10). Peter advises his readers to be on the lookout for false teachers, reminding them of the dangers that have befallen previous generations who went astray, like the rebellious angels, the society of Noah’s time, and the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. Peter also addresses some concerns about why Jesus has not already returned; at least some Christians had been hoping for an imminent and immediate return (“They will say, ‘Where is the promise of his coming? For ever since the fathers fell asleep, all things are continuing as they were from the beginning of creation’” [2 Pet 3:4]). In response, Peter advises them to be patient and to adopt a much broader perspective on the passage of time: “[…] with the Lord one day is as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day” (2 Pet 3:8). Peter believes that God is holding off the end of history in a desire to extend the promise of salvation to more people and to give them even more time to come to repentance.