Hebrew Bible

The name of this book, derived from a Greek translation, refers to the Israelites’ departure from Egypt. The Hebrew name, taken from the opening lines, means “Names.” In the narrative, the Israelites continue to multiply, becoming 12 tribes. Feeling threatened by the Israelites’ rise, the Egyptian pharaoh enslaves them and undertakes a genocidal program of executing the Israelites’ baby boys. One boy, however, is saved when his mother puts him in a basket and floats him down the river, where he finds safety after being rescued by an Egyptian princess. This boy, Moses, is raised in the Egyptian royal household. As an adult, a violent altercation results in Moses being forced to flee eastward to the land of Midian, where he starts a new life as a shepherd. While working there, he sees a burning bush on Mount Sinai, a revelation of the presence of G-d, who calls Moses to go back to Egypt and proclaim freedom for the Israelites. Moses returns and confronts the pharaoh, who is initially unwilling to let the Israelites go. G-d strikes Egypt with 10 plagues, culminating with the slaughter of the first-born child of each Egyptian household. At the end of this final plague (the events of which form the basis of the Passover tradition), the pharaoh capitulates and lets the Israelites go. 

The Israelites leave the country, but the pharaoh changes his mind and pursues them. They find themselves trapped against the Red Sea, but G-d opens a path of dry land through the water, allowing the Israelites to escape. G-d provides food (manna) and water for them in the desert, guiding them until they come to Mount Sinai. There, G-d delivers his Ten Commandments, as well as other stipulations of the law. This law is enshrined as part of the covenant that he makes with the people of Israel, in which he will be their G-d and they will be “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exodus 19.6). The remainder of the book constitutes a code of laws and stipulations for building the tabernacle (mishkan), a ritual center at which G-d will be worshiped. In the tabernacle, G-d meets with Moses and Aaron, the high priest, and accepts animal sacrifices to atone for the sins of the Israelite people.

The English name for this book refers to its content, which is largely a set of ceremonial laws for the observances led by members of the tribe of Levi. The Hebrew name, taken from the book’s first words, means “and [the L-rd] called.” Leviticus includes a few brief stories about the continuing journey of the Israelites through the desert as they make their way from Mount Sinai to the land of Canaan. It is mostly composed, however, of a collection of laws governing the religious rituals and practices of the Israelite people. Leviticus is written as a code for the priestly class, including the high priest and his family, all of whom come from the tribe of Levi. Leviticus details many of the requirements for conducting worship in and around the tabernacle, focusing especially on the practice of giving sacrifices by offering animals for burnt sacrifices on the tabernacle’s altar. It also details G-d’s commands regarding the practice of major festivals for the Jewish religious year. The Israelites practice several such festivals, including Passover, a commemoration of G-d’s act of freeing them from Egypt. Leviticus contains detailed prescriptions for carrying out these religious festivals and for maintaining the tabernacle, with its lamps, incense altar, and other implements. Leviticus also contains a number of moral laws that apply not just to the Levites but to the whole people of Israel. These laws include rules regarding ceremonial purity, which the priests are meant to adjudicate.

This book’s English name refers to the records of Israel’s census, while its Hebrew name means “in the wilderness.” It recounts the story of the Israelites as they walk through the wilderness on their journey from Egypt to Canaan. As the Israelites draw near the borders of Canaan, Moses commissions 12 men to spy out the land and judge the strength of the cities therein. When the spies enter, they observe that the land is filled with powerful Canaanite city-states. The majority feel that the odds are insurmountable, and they deliver this bad news to Moses and the people of Israel. Because of this report, the Israelites refuse to enter Canaan, and because of their refusal, they are condemned to wander the desert for 40 years, until the generation that refused to follow G-d’s leading has passed away.

As they go on their journey, G-d continues to provide for them with an abundance of manna (a bread-like substance that gathers on the ground like dew) and miraculous provisions of water. Moses eventually falls afoul of G-d’s commands when he gets angry and strikes a rock to bring forth water instead of speaking to it as G-d has directed. Because of this act of disobedience, G-d tells Moses that he will not live to see the Israelites enter the land of Canaan. After the 40 years of wandering are complete, the Israelites move up the eastern borders of Canaan and prepare to enter it. They face a final set of challenges from the people of Moab, who live in that region and seek to stall the Israelites’ advance through curses and temptations. The Israelites’ failure to resist these efforts leads to a catastrophic plague tearing through their camp.

The Book of Deuteronomy, which in Greek means “second law,” is also known by the Hebrew title Devarim, meaning “words.” It begins with a recounting of the stories of the people of Israel immediately before their entrance into the land of Canaan. It then proceeds into a summary of the covenant-law, offering a synopsis and partial expansion of the legal code found in Exodus and Leviticus. Deuteronomy takes the form of a speech that Moses delivers to the people of Israel as they are awaiting their opportunity to enter the land of Canaan. In this speech, Moses reminds them of G-d’s faithfulness, in contrast to their own failings and sins. One of the continuing refrains of the Book of Deuteronomy is the call to “remember” (for example, in Deuteronomy 5.15, 7.18, 8.2, and 9.7). Moses restates the Ten Commandments and underscores the importance of passing on the law of G-d. In this sequence (Chapters 5-6), Moses relates one of the central passages of the whole Jewish tradition, the Shema: “Hear, O Israel! The L-rd is our G-d, the L-rd alone. You shall love the L-rd your G-d with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might” (Deuteronomy 6.4-5). 

The remainder of the Book of Deuteronomy is composed of ethical and ceremonial laws. Near the end of the book, Moses commands the Israelites to enact a ritual upon their entrance into Canaan: They are to go to the mountains of Ebal and Gerizim and recommit themselves to the covenant of G-d by pronouncing the blessings and curses of the covenant (Chapter 27). Moses then concludes the Book of Deuteronomy with a song of praise, after which comes an account of Moses’ death. Moses ascends a mountain near the Jordan River, from which he can look across into the promised land, and there he passes away.