The End of History and the Last Man

The “beast with red cheeks” (171) is a concept created by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche used to describe a value-focused human being.

Capitalism is an economic system that is often the counterpart of the ideology of Liberalism and the political system of democracy. Under capitalism, there is private ownership of business and property. Critics argue that capitalism is not just an economic system but one of social relations. These unequal relations between the producers and the business owners (Capital) are an integral part of this system.

The “coldest of all cold monsters” (211) is a concept invented by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche and used to describe the state.

Communism is one of the key ideologies of the Modern period. Conceptualized by the German philosopher Karl Marx, Communism is focused on class as a historical subject and advocates for public ownership of key industries (the means of production) and property.

Democracy is a type of government in which all citizens can elect their representatives for a specified time period. Its definitions have changed over time. For example, democracy is usually traced to ancient Athens, which practiced slavery, and in which only men with military training could vote.

In religion, eschatology is associated with the endpoint of human existence, including the fate of the soul after death (the Last Judgment in Christianity) and the end of the world. More broadly, eschatology refers to a directional process that leads to a logical conclusion and is sometimes believed to be predestined.

Fascism is a 20th century ideology of the Modern period generally characterized by a military dictator, social hierarchies, ultra-nationalism, and a supremacist biological concept of race. Fascism is usually associated with Nazi Germany and its World War II ally, Italy.

Historicism is the practice of relying on the events of the past to predict the future. The term was coined by Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel and is present in the works of several thinkers, from Hegel to Fukuyama himself. Taken to its logical conclusion, historicism believes in historic destiny above individual human agency.

Isothymia, a term with ancient Greek roots, denotes seeking to be recognized as an equal to others.

Liberalism is the first important ideology of the Modern period, according to Fukuyama. Liberalism is usually linked to private ownership and a democratic form of government. At its root, however, Liberalism is focused on the individual as its subject of history.

The author uses the term megalothymia from an ancient Greek source to denote the type of person who believes themselves to be superior to others and wants to be recognized as such.

Perestroika, which literally means “restructuring,” was a series of reforms undertaken by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the latter part of the 1980s.

Realpolitik is a German term used to describe pragmatic international relations between different countries focused on self-interest outside of ideological and moral factors.

Thymos is a term used in ancient Greek philosophy by Plato and others. It roughly translates to “spiritedness.” Fukuyama links this term to the modern concept of identity which he describes as the need to be recognized.